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Complications of Pregnancy

Bethany Derricott, RN, BSN, MSN (candidate)

Our courses fulfill continuing nursing education requirements in all 50 states. For more accreditation information, click here.

The author especially thanks Sharon Walker, MSN, RN, for her contributions to this continuing education course, and Sim London, Jr., for color illustrations.

Pregnancy is one of the most profound times in a woman's life. It is marked by a variety of physical changes, as well as by thoughts and feelings that sometimes overwhelm the mother-to-be. Though pregnancy is generally a time of joy and well-being, complications can occur that cloud the experience and put the patient and her unborn child at risk.

These complications include bleeding in early or late pregnancy, hyperemesis gravidum, pregnancy-related hypertension, gestational diabetes mellitus, preterm rupture of membranes, and preterm labor and birth.

Nurses working in perinatal settings are in a unique position to screen, monitor and provide nursing care to patients who are affected by complications during pregnancy. It is essential for nurses to be familiar with these complications, as well as the maternal and fetal implications, medical treatment, and nursing care necessary to address these problems.

BLEEDING COMPLICATIONS: EARLY PREGNANCY

Spontaneous Abortion

Abortion describes the loss of pregnancy prior to fetal viability, which is typically defined as greater than 20 weeks' gestation or fetal size greater than 500 gm. Abortion can be either spontaneous or induced. Spontaneous abortion, often called a miscarriage, occurs without intervention from the patient or another person.

TYPES

Spontaneous abortion "…affects up to 20% of recognized pregnancies" (Griebel et al., 2005). Spontaneous abortions can be caused by a number of factors, including chromosomal abnormalities, maternal infection, maternal endocrine disorders (eg, hypothyroidism, uncontrolled diabetes), reproductive system abnormalities (eg, an incompetent cervix), and maternal injury. Literature suggests that drug use and environmental factors may also be linked to the occurrence of spontaneous abortion. Spontaneous abortions are classified according to symptoms and the outcome of the products of conception. Spontaneous abortions are considered threatened, inevitable, incomplete, complete, missed, or recurrent.

Threatened abortions are diagnosed when there is vaginal bleeding and, possibly, uterine cramping. Patients suffering from a threatened abortion may or may not lose the fetus. However, careful monitoring and appropriate intervention are necessary. Typically, patients are instructed to avoid sexual activity, tampons, and douches, as well as strenuous exercise. Patients are also encouraged to note and report bleeding to their healthcare provider.

Inevitable abortions occur when amniotic membranes rupture and the cervix dilates. In this case, abortion or miscarriage is considered inevitable. Patients typically have cramping. The products of conception are commonly expelled without intervention. However, a dilation and curettage (D&C) may be performed if necessary.

Incomplete abortions occur when some, but not all, of the products of conception are expelled from the uterus. The retained products prevent the uterus from contracting completely, which results in bleeding from uterine blood vessels. Patients generally experience severe cramping and profuse bleeding, and receive intravenous (IV) fluids and possibly blood products. Generally, a D&C is performed to remove the retained products of conception. Additionally, patients may receive medications such as oxytocin (Pitocin) or methylergonovine (Methergine) to contract the uterus and stop the bleeding.

Complete abortions occur when all of the products of conception including the fetus and placenta are expelled from the uterus. The cervix closes, and cramping and bleeding stop. Further intervention is typically not necessary. However, the patient is advised to notify her healthcare provider of any additional bleeding, pain or symptoms of infection, such as fever or foul-smelling vaginal discharge.

Missed abortions occur when the fetus expires during the first half of pregnancy, but is retained in the uterus. If there are no obvious signs of infection present, the patient may carry the fetus until spontaneous expulsion occurs. This may take several weeks. However, a D&C may be performed.

The term recurrent (or habitual) spontaneous abortion, refers to three or more consecutive spontaneous abortions. It is believed that genetic defects and reproductive system abnormalities are the primary causes of recurrent abortions. Patients are screened and examined for reproductive system abnormalities, such as recurrent premature dilation of the cervix, also known as incompetent cervix. In the case of the premature dilation of the cervix, a suturing procedure, known as a cerclage, may be performed to prevent the cervix from opening until delivery.

Reproductive system abnormalities may prevent the successful implantation and growth of the ovum. If the reproductive system is found to be normal, genetic screening is performed. Treatment of recurrent spontaneous abortion is based on the causative factor.

NURSE ALERT: Genetic Influence of the Father
Slama and colleagues (2005) studied 5,121 California women who were less than 13 weeks gestation to determine the relationship between paternal age and spontaneous abortion, as chromosomal anomalies in spermatozoa appear to increase with paternal age (more specifically, fathers greater than 35 years old). They found that "the risk of spontaneous abortion increased with increasing paternal age [and] … that the association is stronger for first trimester losses" (p. 816). Kleinhaus and colleagues (2006) conducted a similar study with 13,865 women and concluded that "increasing paternal age is significantly associated with spontaneous abortion, independent of maternal age and multiple other factors" (p. 369).

NURSING CARE

Nursing care for patients experiencing a spontaneous abortion varies depending on the type of abortion. However, the primary nursing intervention for all types of spontaneous abortion is to ensure patient safety by identifying and controlling bleeding and hypovolemic shock. Symptoms of hypovolemic shock include an increased heart rate, decreased blood pressure, cool and clammy skin, lightheadedness, and confusion. The nurse should anticipate the need for oxygen therapy and fluid and blood replacement. The nurse may also be responsible for administering medications; for example, oxytocin (Pitocin) may be used to help in expelling the products of conception or to control bleeding. Patients should be blood-typed and cross-matched in case a blood transfusion is necessary.

The nurse monitors vital signs, oxygen saturation, intake and output, and laboratory results according to institutional policies. If a patient experiences a threatened abortion but the fetus does not die, the nurse may be responsible for monitoring fetal heart sounds and the overall well-being of the fetus depending on gestational age. The nurse should administer prescribed Rhogam to Rh-negative patients within 72 hours to prevent isoimmunization.

The nurse caring for a patient experiencing spontaneous abortion will also need to help the patient explore her feelings regarding an actual or potential loss. Many patients feel that their actions somehow led to the spontaneous abortion; therefore, feelings of guilt are often significant emotional challenges that many patients must deal with while grieving their loss.

Similarly, patients who suffer from a threatened abortion and do not lose the fetus are often afraid that they may still lose the fetus and remain stressed throughout the remainder of the pregnancy. This affects not only the patient but also her family, and the nurse should do everything possible to assist the patient and her family during this time.

PATIENT TEACHING

Nurses are responsible for ensuring that patients are adequately prepared to care for themselves upon discharge from the hospital following treatment or monitoring for a spontaneous abortion. It is important that patients understand the warning signs of further complications and the importance of reporting such signs to their healthcare provider.

Warning signs include fever, foul-smelling vaginal discharge, significant bright red vaginal bleeding, and pelvic pain. In addition, patients are encouraged to avoid sexual activity, tampons, or douches. Experiencing a spontaneous abortion is challenging for patients both physically and emotionally and they need to rest for a few days after discharge. They may be required to take iron supplements as a result of significant blood loss and/or antibiotics to treat or prevent infection. Foods such as liver, green leafy vegetables, dried foods, and eggs provide needed iron. Additional fluid intake is recommended.

It is important that the nurse recognize and acknowledge the patient's loss, or threatened loss. The patient needs to understand that it is normal for her to go through a grieving process and that she may grieve for six months to one year (McKinney et al., 2005). The patient should also be provided with appropriate community referrals for counseling and/or support groups. She may be eager to become pregnant again if she loses the fetus; however, she should be encouraged to allow her body to rest and recover before attempting another pregnancy and to discuss with her healthcare provider when the appropriate time to conceive would be.

Ectopic Pregnancy

Ectopic pregnancies occur when the ovum is fertilized by the sperm but implants outside the uterus in the fallopian tubes, cervix, ovary, or abdominal cavity. Most ectopic pregnancies occur in the fallopian tubes (Figure 1).

Figure 1     Possible implantation sites for ectopic pregnancies. (Illustration courtesy of Sim London, Jr.)

INCIDENCE AND RISK FACTORS

Approximately 2 in 100 pregnancies in the United States are ectopic (Cunningham, et al., 2005). Ectopic pregnancies are caused by a variety of factors, which include anything that would prevent or slow the fertilized ovum's journey to the lining of the uterus. More specifically, anything that causes scarring in or blocks the fallopian tubes may cause an ectopic pregnancy. Patients who are of advanced maternal age or have reproductive system anomalies, repeated induced abortions, a history of tubal surgery, sexual transmitted infections (STIs), pelvic inflammatory disease or intrauterine devices (IUD) are at-risk for having an ectopic pregnancy. The literature also suggests that women who douche regularly or smoke have a higher risk of an ectopic pregnancy.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

Signs and symptoms of an ectopic pregnancy include vaginal bleeding, lack of menstruation (amenorrhea), and abdominal pain. However, other disease processes (eg, spontaneous abortion) may be responsible for such symptoms. Ultrasound and laboratory testing are necessary to diagnose an ectopic pregnancy.

The outcome of an ectopic pregnancy depends on the location of implantation. The ovum may naturally reabsorb into the body, or the structure supporting the ovum may rupture. If the implantation site is a fallopian tube, the tube may rupture and cause internal hemorrhaging and hypovolemic shock, which is a life-threatening event for the patient.

Signs and symptoms of a ruptured fallopian tube include vaginal bleeding, severe abdominal pain or pelvic, shoulder or neck pain (as a result of blood leaking out of the fallopian tube and irritating the diaphragm), weakness, dizziness, decreased blood pressure, and increased pulse. It is important to note that over 50% of patients experiencing an ectopic pregnancy are asymptomatic prior to tubal rupture (Chan & Johnson, 2004).

MEDICAL MANAGEMENT

An ectopic pregnancy implanted in a fallopian tube requires either pharmacologic or surgical management. Pharmacologic management with methotrexate is indicated if the tube is unruptured, the ectopic pregnancy is less than 3.5 cm, the fetus is not living, and the patient is stable hemodynamically. Often, patients require more than one dose of methotrexate for effective treatment. Methotrexate treatment is usually performed on an outpatient basis.

If the fallopian tube is ruptured as a result of an ectopic pregnancy and the patient wants to become pregnant in the future, a surgical procedure called a linear salpingostomy is performed to protect the tube. A linear salpingostomy requires a small linear incision in the tube to remove the products of conception. The tube is then allowed to heal without suturing to prevent significant scarring. Significant scarring in the fallopian tube could potentially affect the ability of the patient to have a successful pregnancy in the future. If the tube is ruptured the patient does not desire a future pregnancy, a laparoscopic salpingectomy is performed. This procedure involves the actual removal of the affected fallopian tube.

NURSING CARE

The nurse caring for a patient experiencing an ectopic pregnancy looks for changes in the patient's blood pressure and pulse, which could indicate hypovolemic shock resulting from hemorrhage. Regular assessment of vaginal bleeding is also essential. Rh-negative patients require administration of prescribed Rhogam to prevent isoimmunization. Finally, the nurse is responsible for monitoring and controlling pain levels.

If a linear salpingostomy or salpingectomy is performed, the nurse monitors vital signs, oxygen saturation, intake and output, and laboratory results according to institutional policies. As with all patients experiencing a pregnancy loss, it is important for the nurse to recognize the loss and to provide resources to assist the patient in coping with the emotions that accompany the experience of an ectopic pregnancy.

PATIENT TEACHING

Nurses are responsible for ensuring that the patient is aware of signs and symptoms that require a call to the healthcare provider or a return visit to the emergency room following hospital discharge. More specifically, if the patient experiences pain, significant bleeding, or a fever and chills, she needs to notify her healthcare provider. If methotrexate is used for the treatment of an ectopic pregnancy, the patient should be educated about the unpleasant side effects (nausea and vomiting) of methotrexate. The patient should have a clear understanding of the feelings of anger, sadness, or guilt that may arise following an ectopic pregnancy and that these feelings are a normal part of the grieving process for someone experiencing the loss of a pregnancy.

NURSE ALERT: Methotrexate
If methotrexate is used to treat an ectopic pregnancy, instruct the patient to avoid alcohol as well as foods and vitamins containing folic acid, which can decrease the effectiveness of the medication.

Hydatidiform Mole

A hydatidiform mole, also known as a molar pregnancy, occurs when the chorionic villi of the placenta increase as a result of genetic abnormalities. The villi swell, forming fluid-filled sacs, which appear as tiny clusters of grapes within the uterus. Hydatidiform moles are classified as complete or partial based on whether a fetus is present. A partial hydatidiform mole occurs when a fetus or an amniotic sac is present, whereas a complete hydatidiform mole only contains the fluid-filled sacs. The fetus is usually nonviable in a molar pregnancy. However, according to Dente (2007), although it is uncommon, ""twinning" has been reported with a complete [hydatidiform mole] plus a surviving fetus with a normal placenta" (p. 1).

INCIDENCE AND RISK FACTORS

Hydatidiform moles are rare and occur in approximately 1 in 1000 pregnancies in the United States and Europe (Cunningham et al., 2005). Patients of advanced maternal age and of Asian descent have a higher risk of having a molar pregnancy. Additionally, patients who experienced a previous molar pregnancy have a higher risk of having a molar pregnancy in the future.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

Patients with a hydatidiform mole exhibit light to heavy bleeding and even hemorrhage. Bleeding can be bright red or brown, appearing similar to prune juice. Anemia may result due to bleeding. Additionally, as a result of the proliferation of tissues and the presence of clotted blood, the uterus may appear larger than expected for gestational age. Despite an enlarged uterus, fetal heart tones and movement are absent. Serum hCG levels are also increased and patients may experience hyperemesis. Symptoms of gestational hypertension before 24 weeks' gestation are a strong indication of a hydatidiform mole.

MEDICAL MANAGEMENT

Molar tissues are removed by vacuum aspiration. Intravenous oxytocin is usually administered to contract the uterus after the vacuum aspiration. It is important to note that oxytocin should not be administered prior to vacuum aspiration to avoid tissue being forced into venous circulation and subsequent embolization (McKinney et al., 2005). Gentle curettage, or scraping of the uterus, is performed to ensure that the uterus is emptied of all affected tissue.

NURSE ALERT: Hydatidiform Mole Follow-Up
Patients are followed for one year after removal of a hydatidiform mole pregnancy to detect choriocarcinoma, or cancer associated with hydatidiform mole pregnancy. If serum hCG levels do not return to pre-pregnancy levels, there is a possibility that choriocarcinoma may be present and further investigation is necessary. Therefore, it is essential that patients understand the need for follow-up.

NURSING CARE

It is vital that the nurse monitoring patients experiencing hydatidiform mole pregnancies assess for signs and symptoms of bleeding and shock. If a patient has hyperemesis resulting from the molar pregnancy, the nurse should assist the patient with mouth care and any additional interventions that are appropriate. Nursing care also includes pre- and post-operative care. Laboratory work, including a complete blood count, blood typing and crossmatching, and serum hCG levels is required prior to vacuum aspiration and curettage.

Rh-negative patients should receive Rhogam to prevent isoimmunization. As with all pregnancy losses, patients may exhibit grief in response to the loss. Patients should be informed that this is a normal response to a pregnancy loss; therefore, nursing care includes referring patients to appropriate providers or support groups as needed.

PATIENT TEACHING

Due to the risk of choriocarcinoma, it is vital that patients understand the need for regular follow-up to test serum hCG levels. Patients should also understand that another pregnancy immediately following a molar pregnancy should be avoided in order to monitor hCG levels without the interference of hCG from pregnancy. It is important that patients are aware of the signs and symptoms of complications following a hydatidiform mole and vacuum aspiration, including excessive bleeding, foul-smelling vaginal discharge, and fever.

Patients should avoid tampons, douches, and sexual activity until the healthcare provider indicates that these activities can be performed safely. As a result of bleeding, patients may be anemic and require increased iron intake or possibly iron supplementation. Foods such as liver, green leafy vegetables, dried foods, and eggs can provide needed iron. The patient should also be encouraged to increase fluid intake.

BLEEDING COMPLICATIONS: LATE PREGNANCY

Placenta Previa

Placenta previa occurs when the placenta implants in the lower portion of the uterus by the internal cervical os. Previas are classified according to the degree to which they cover the os. Specifically, if the lower border of the placenta is close to, but does not quite reach, the internal cervical os, the previa is considered marginal. If the placenta partly covers the internal os, the previa is considered a partial placenta previa. The previa is considered a total previa if the placenta completely covers the internal cervical os (Figure 2). As the pregnancy nears term and the cervix dilates, the placenta implanted near or over the internal cervical os is disrupted and bleeding can occur. The bleeding places the patient and her unborn child at-risk.

Figure 2     Placenta previa. (Illustration courtesy of Sim London, Jr.)

INCIDENCE AND RISK FACTORS

Placenta previa occurs in approximately 1 in 200 pregnancies in the United States (McKinney et al., 2005). There are several factors that place patients at risk for a placenta previa. See Box 1.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

The most significantly recognized symptom of placenta previa is painless, bright red vaginal bleeding or hemorrhage during late pregnancy. It is imperative that vaginal examinations be avoided because stimulation of the placenta may cause hemorrhage. However, bleeding may not occur until labor begins.

MATERNAL AND FETAL IMPLICATIONS

As a result of the abnormally implanted uterus, the fetus is often in a transverse or breech position, which may be noted during fundal examination. The fetus may also experience hypoxia and possibly death from maternal bleeding. The patient may go into shock as a result of hemorrhage.

MEDICAL MANAGEMENT

As previously mentioned, vaginal examination must be avoided if a patient presents with painless, bright red vaginal bleeding because hemorrhage may occur. A transabdominal ultrasound can be performed to diagnose the previa. Medical management of a placenta previa is largely determined by gestational age, fetal status, amount of bleeding, and type of previa. Some patients may deliver vaginally if they are near term, the cervix is ripe, the fetal heart tracing is reassuring, and there is minimal bleeding. However, if there is a non-reassuring fetal heart tracing, significant bleeding, or hemorrhage, or a complete previa is present, a cesarean section is usually necessary.

NURSING CARE

Nursing care for patients with a placenta previa involves close monitoring of bleeding as well as fetal and maternal status. Significant bleeding or hemorrhage should be reported immediately to the appropriate healthcare provider. Regular assessment of fetal heart rate and movement is necessary. Non-reassuring fetal heart rate patterns should be reported to the healthcare provider immediately. It is important to note that pregnant patients can experience significant blood loss (approximately 40%) without a change in vital signs (Lowdermilk & Perry, 2006). Therefore, careful monitoring of bleeding is imperative as vital sign changes may not be initially evident.

Patients with a placenta previa should remain on bed rest. Non-stress testing to evaluate fetal status is performed during bleeding episodes, while intermittent fetal heart tones are obtained according to medical orders or institutional policy. Patients should be blood-typed and cross-matched in case a blood transfusion is necessary. Intravenous access should be maintained for prompt administration of fluids or blood products.

A Kleihauer-Betke test is usually performed on Rh-negative patients to determine if the fetal blood has entered the maternal circulation as a result of fetal-maternal hemorrhage (Klossner, 2006). Rhogam is given to Rh negative patients during each bleeding episode to prevent isoimmunization.

PATIENT TEACHING

It is extremely important that patients with a placenta previa understand the need to maintain bed rest to prevent unnecessary pressure on the internal cervical area where the placenta is implanted. In addition, patients should be instructed to maintain pelvic rest by abstaining from sexual intercourse or using tampons or douches. Encourage the patient to prohibit vaginal examinations.

ABRUPTIO PLACENTAE

Abruptio placentae, often referred to as an abruption or placenta abruption, is the premature separation of the normally implanted placenta from the uterine wall before labor and delivery of the newborn. Bleeding occurs between the uterine wall and the placenta.

Abruptio placentae is classified according to the degree of placental separation and subsequent hemorrhage. An abruption can be partial or complete, with apparent or concealed hemorrhage (Figure 3). An abruption is partial if a section of the placenta separates from the uterine wall but the margins of the placenta remain intact. A complete abruption occurs when the entire placenta detaches from the uterine wall. Apparent hemorrhage refers to bleeding that is evident, while a concealed hemorrhage denotes bleeding that is obscured.

Figure 3     A, Partial abruption with concealed hemorrhage. B, Partial abruption with apparent hemorrhage. C, Complete abruption with apparent hemorrhage. (Illustrations by Jason M. McAlexander, MFA.)

INCIDENCE AND RISK FACTORS

Abruptio placentae occurs in 1 in 200 deliveries (Cunningham et al., 2005). Aside from abruptions occurring as a result of trauma, the cause of abruptio placentae is largely unknown. However, there are several factors that place patients at risk for an abruption. See Box 2.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

The classic signs and symptoms of abruption placentae include vaginal bleeding, which may be dark red due to old blood from a concealed abruption, uterine tenderness, and a board-like abdomen. Patients often complain of an aching or dull pain in the abdomen or lower back. Additionally, uterine irritability with poor uterine resting tone is frequently noted.

MATERNAL AND FETAL IMPLICATIONS

Abruptio placentae is a life-threatening event for the patient and the fetus. Patients with an abruption are at risk for developing hypovolemic shock, disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), and possibly death. Patients may also suffer from postpartum hemorrhage after delivery due to poor contractility of the uterus following an abruption. Since the placenta is the source of oxygenation for the unborn fetus, premature separation of the placenta from the uterine wall can place the fetus at great risk for hypoxia and death.

MEDICAL TREATMENT

Abruptio placentae is usually diagnosed by abdominal ultrasound, in addition to the presenting signs and symptoms. Treatment is based on the degree of placental separation and subsequent hemorrhage, as well as the status of the patient and fetus. In the presence of severe abruption and hemorrhage, emergency cesarean section is performed. However, in some cases, the abrupted area is small and emergency delivery is not necessary. Vaginal delivery can be safely performed if the patient and fetus are hemodynamically stable (Callahan, Caughey & Heffner, 2004).

NURSING CARE

Although vaginal delivery is preferred to cesarean section for patients who are hemodynamically stable, the nurse must be prepared to deal with the possibility of severe hemorrhage and hypovolemic shock, as well as the resulting fetal distress. Patients should have intravenous access with a large bore catheter to accommodate the administration of fluid and blood products.

It is necessary to monitor carefully the status of the patient and fetus. Frequent vital signs and fetal heart tones, as well as monitoring and documentation of blood loss, is essential. Abnormal vital signs, bleeding, or non-reassuring fetal heart patterns should be reported immediately to the appropriate healthcare provider. Observation and documentation of the patient's intake and output, and pain and comfort levels, is also essential. Patients should be blood typed and cross-matched in case a blood transfusion is necessary. Rhogam is indicated for Rh negative patients.

Because the potential for patient and fetal injury is high in the presence of abruptio placentae, it is important to address the emotional needs of the patient. Patients should be kept informed of the status of the fetus and the nurse should be available and ready to answer any questions that patients or their families may have.

PATIENT TEACHING

Patients should be instructed to report bleeding and severe abdominal pain immediately. It is important to inform patients with abruptio placentae that emergency delivery may be necessary. If a patient must have an emergency cesarean section, it is important for the nurse to quickly communicate to the patient and her family what will occur before and during the procedure. Nurses should remember that hemorrhage and emergency surgery can be very frightening; therefore, clear and honest information must be given to the patient and her family as frequently as possible.

TABLE 1

PLACENTA PREVIA vs. ABRUPTIO PLACENTAE

Assessment	Placenta previa	Abruptio placentae
Pain	Painless	Uterine tenderness; severe abdominal pain and possibly aching or dull pain in the lower back
Bleeding	Bright red	May be concealed; if noted, it is often dark red
Uterus	No unusual contractions or irritability	"Board-like" abdomen; uterine irritability with poor resting tone
Risk for postpartum hemorrhage	High risk; due to low placement of the placenta there is limited uterine contraction	High risk; due to poor contractility of the uterus following an abruption

HYPEREMESIS GRAVIDARUM

Nausea and vomiting occur normally during pregnancy. However, nausea and vomiting that persists beyond the 20th week of gestation and interferes with the intake of food and fluid as well as adequate weight gain during pregnancy is termed hyperemesis gravidarum. The cause of hyperemesis is unknown, however, elevated hormonal levels and relaxation of smooth muscle resulting in delayed stomach emptying, along with stress, are believed to play a part in this disorder.

INCIDENCE

Hyperemesis gravidarum affects approximately 0.5% to 2% of pregnancies (Davis, 2004). Depending on the severity of the condition, patients suffering from hyperemesis may be hospitalized or admitted to home care services for monitoring.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

Normal first-trimester nausea and vomiting can be challenging for pregnant women. However, patients with hyperemesis gravidarum are frequently debilitated by unrelenting vomiting and dry retching. Box 3 lists common signs and symptoms of hyperemesis gravidarum.

MATERNAL AND FETAL IMPLICATIONS

Patients with hyperemesis gravidarum frequently become dehydrated, and may have metabolic acidosis as a result of starvation. In addition, patients may become alkalotic from a loss of hydrochloric acid during vomiting. Electrolyte imbalances such as hypokalemia and vitamin deficiencies are also common in patients with hyperemesis gravidarum. Ultimately, long-term nausea and vomiting can cause renal and/or gastrointestinal impairment in the pregnant patient.

Dehydration occurring from hyperemesis gravidarum may result in preterm labor, which can negatively impact the fetus. In addition, dehydration impairs placental perfusion and affects nutrient intake and oxygenation of the fetus. Moreover, due to the severe nausea and vomiting associated with hyperemesis, poor maternal nutrient intake is common and fetal growth may be compromised, causing low-birth-weight infants.

MEDICAL TREATMENT

When diagnosing hyperemesis gravidarum, it is important to investigate the underlying causes of nausea and vomiting. These causes can include gastroenteritis, pancreatitis, hepatitis, peptic ulcer disease, and pyelonephritis. Patients usually require intravenous fluids and antiemetics to manage hyperemesis. While most care for hyperemesis is provided in the patient's home, some patients may require hospitalization for nutritional support via enteral or parenteral access.

NURSE ALERT: Nausea and Vomiting
Research studies have examined the effectiveness of acupuncture and acupressure on nausea and vomiting during pregnancy. Although there are differing opinions about the effectiveness of these therapies, several studies indicate that acupuncture and acupressure are effective modalities for the treatment of nausea and vomiting during early pregnancy (Steele, French, Gatherer-Boyles, Newman, & Leclaire, 2001; Smith, Crowther & Beilby, 2002; Betts, 2006).

NURSING CARE

The nurse caring for patients with hyperemesis gravidarum monitors and provides physical care as well as psychosocial support to patients. The nurse will administer intravenous fluids and antiemetics. Intake and output are carefully monitored, as well as gastrointestinal status. Laboratory results (eg, ketones, electrolytes, complete blood count, liver enzymes) should be carefully monitored, with abnormal results reported to the appropriate healthcare provider. It is important to monitor for weight loss. The constant, prolonged nausea and vomiting associated with hyperemesis may easily result in malnutrition for pregnant patients. Often patients are unable to work or tend to activities of daily living. This underscores the need for the nurse to address the psychosocial needs of patients, which may involve simply listening to the patient or a referral to appropriate resources.

PATIENT TEACHING

Most of the nursing care provided to patients with hyperemesis gravidarum involves teaching the patient to deal with the associated nausea and vomiting. It is important for patients to understand the need to eat small, frequent low-fat meals throughout the day. Usually toast, dry cereal, and other bland foods such as bananas, rice, and apples are well tolerated. Patients should be instructed to identify and avoid foods and odors that trigger nausea and vomiting. In addition, patients should be encouraged to maintain adequate fluid intake to prevent dehydration.

Since constant, prolonged vomiting affects the patient's mouth and desire to eat, nurses can teach and encourage patients to provide and maintain adequate oral care. Positive ketones in the urine indicate that patients are using fat stores to provide energy to themselves and their growing fetuses. Therefore, patients may be required to use urine dipsticks to monitor ketones while at home. The nurse will need to instruct patients in the appropriate use of the urine dipsticks.

NURSE ALERT: Notifying Healthcare Provider
Nurses should instruct patients to notify their healthcare provider if they notice dark urine, bloody vomitus, abdominal pain, dehydration, lack of urine output for 8 hours, inability to keep food down for 24 hours, or ketones in the urine (Davis, 2004).

PREGNANCY-RELATED HYPERTENSIVE COMPLICATIONS

Gestational hypertension, formerly known as pregnancy-induced hypertension, refers to hypertension occurring for the first time during pregnancy. Diagnosis of gestational hypertension requires a blood pressure that is greater than or equal to 140/90 mm Hg. The blood pressure should be elevated on at least two occasions 4 to 6 hours apart. The diagnosis is made after 20 weeks' gestation and is characterized by a blood pressure that returns to normal by 12 weeks postpartum. Patients with gestational hypertension do not present with proteinuria, which is a characteristic of preeclampsia. However, gestational hypertension may progress to preeclampsia.

Preeclampsia is identified by a blood pressure that is greater than or equal to 140/90 mm Hg, in the presence of protein in the urine (proteinuria). Preeclampsia is indicated when there is a finding of 300 mg of protein in a 24-hour urine test or 1 to 2+ protein or greater via urine dipstick.

Eclampsia is the occurrence of seizures in the presence of preeclampsia. Usually, seizures are related to gestational hypertension and not to other causes. Seizures can occur anytime before, during, or after delivery of the fetus.

Preeclampsia Superimposed on Chronic Hypertension

Preeclampsia superimposed on chronic hypertension refers to chronic hypertension with a new onset of proteinuria in hypertensive patients without proteinuria before 20 weeks' gestation or a sudden increase in proteinuria or blood pressure, or a platelet count less than 100,000 mm³ in patients with hypertension and proteinuria before 20 weeks' gestation (Cunningham et al., 2005). Medical treatment and nursing care for patients with preeclampsia superimposed on chronic hypertension is similar to that of gestational hypertension and preeclampsia. Patient with preeclampsia superimposed on chronic hypertension are often treated with antihypertensive agents.

INCIDENCE AND RISK FACTORS

According to the National Vital Statistics Reports (2002), 37.7% of pregnancies are affected by pregnancy-related hypertensive complications. Additionally, pregnancy-related hypertension is a significant contributor to maternal and fetal mortality rates. Moldenhauer and Sabai (2003) indicate that gestational hypertension occurs in approximately 5% to 7% of pregnancies in the United States, while Leifer (2005) indicates that eclampsia occurs in 5% of pregnancies.

Primagravidas, African Americans, diabetics, patients of either young or advanced maternal age, and patients pregnant with multiples are at a greater risk for developing pregnancy-related hypertension. A family history of pregnancy-related hypertension is also a significant risk factor.

NURSE ALERT: Snoring Mothers
Franklin and colleagues (2000) conducted a research study and found that "hypertension developed in 14% of snoring women, compared with 6% of non-snorers (p <0.01). Preeclampsia occurred in 10% of snorers, compared with 4% of non-snorers (p <0.05). An Apgar score <7 was more common in infants born to habitual snorers. Growth retardation of the fetus, defined as small for gestational age at birth, had occurred in 7.1% of the infants of snoring mothers and 2.6% of the remaining infants (p <0.05)" (p. 137). (Courtesy of Sharon Walker, MSN, RN.)

PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

Vasospasm in the arterioles of patients with gestational hypertension causes increased blood pressure and a decrease in placenta and uterine perfusion. Renal blood flow is reduced, along with the renal glomerular filtration rate, which produces proteinuria. Headaches and visual disturbances are the result of cellular damage and cerebral edema caused by central nervous system changes in the presence of hypertension. Liver enlargement is the result of hepatic changes that lead to epigastric pain. Generalized vasospasm causes endothelial cell damage, which triggers coagulation pathways and, subsequently, abnormalities in bleeding and clotting can occur (Leifer, 2005).

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

Signs and symptoms of pregnancy-related hypertension vary depending on the severity of the hypertension. However, the common signs and symptoms of pregnancy-related hypertension include headache, blurred vision, epigastric pain, weight gain (>2 pounds per week), oliguria, and proteinuria. Although no longer considered diagnostic of pregnancy-related hypertension (Cunningham et al., 2005), edema may still be noted in these patients.

MATERNAL AND FETAL IMPLICATIONS

Hypertension in pregnancy places patients and their fetuses at great risk for a variety of complications. Some of the most significant maternal complications of hypertension in pregnancy include cerebral vascular accident (CVA), disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), and placental abruption from the elevated blood pressure. Additionally, patients are at risk for the development of HELLP syndrome in the presence of gestational hypertension. Just as its' name implies, HELLP syndrome causes great dysfunction within the body that requires immediate intervention. It is characterized by:

• Hemolysis of red blood cells, which leads to anemia
• Elevated liver enzymes leading to epigastric pain
• Low platelets, which cause abnormal bleeding and clotting as well as petechiae

Patients whose function continues to decline without intervention can develop eclampsia and are at risk for cerebral hemorrhage, aspiration pneumonia, hypoxic encephalopathy, and thromboembolic disorders (Callahan et al., 2004). Fetal complications include intrauterine growth retardation and premature delivery resulting from decreased placenta perfusion.

MEDICAL TREATMENT

Medical treatment for patients with pregnancy-related hypertension greatly depends on the severity of hypertension and the gestational age of the fetus, as well as the potential risk to the patient and fetus. During early pregnancy, outpatient management is usually appropriate; these patients are monitored at home for blood pressure and proteinuria. Regular fetal monitoring is necessary to evaluate fetal well-being. In addition, placental perfusion tests can also be performed to assess and monitor uteroplacental sufficiency. Patients with evidence of advanced dysfunction, such as oliguria, renal failure, or HELLP syndrome, are usually delivered immediately (Leifer, 2005).

Since delivery is the only known cure for pregnancy-related hypertension, many healthcare providers will recommend immediate induction and delivery if the patient is near-term and shows signs of severe preeclampsia or eclampsia. However, if the healthcare provider determines that the fetus is too premature for delivery, antihypertensive medications may be administered to decrease blood pressure, thereby prolonging fetal growth in utero. Glucocorticoids are administered to enhance fetal lung maturity (Cunningham et al., 2005).

Healthcare providers may prescribe magnesium sulfate (MgSO₄) during labor and delivery to prevent seizures. Magnesium sulfate is not used to control hypertension. Magnesium sulfate is administered intravenously via an infusion delivery device during delivery and for 24 hours post delivery. Since MgSO₄ can cause fetal respiratory depression following delivery, arrangements should be made for specialized neonatal care.

NURSING CARE

Pregnancy-related hypertension presents a great risk to patients and their unborn fetuses. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the nurse to monitor the patient carefully for signs of a decline in health status. The nurse should immediately report increases in blood pressure, visual disturbance changes, severe headaches, epigastric pain, and oliguria to the appropriate healthcare provider.

While patients are hospitalized for pregnancy-related hypertension, the nurse will monitor blood pressure and the well-being of the fetus. If magnesium sulfate (MgSO₄) is prescribed for preeclampsia or eclampsia, a Foley catheter is usually inserted to monitor urine output and to obtain regular urine specimens. The nurse is responsible for administering MgSO₄ and for monitoring its toxicity. Magnesium sulfate toxicity can be prevented by ensuring that urine output is adequate (at least 30 ml/hr), deep tendon reflexes are present, and the respiratory rate is greater than 12 breaths per minute. If MgSO₄ toxicity is noted, the healthcare provider must be notified immediately and the infusion discontinued. Calcium gluconate can be administered when prescribed to reverse the effects of magnesium MgSO₄ toxicity. The serum magnesium level for patients receiving MgSO₄ should be 4 to 7 mg/dl (Cunningham et al., 2005).

In the presence of eclampsia, the nurse must be prepared to prevent injury to the patient during seizures and to monitor seizure activity. Bed side rails should be up and padded. Emergency equipment should be readily available, including an oral airway, oxygen, a bag-valve-mask (BVM), and emergency medication. In the event of a seizure, patients should be protected from injury. The nurse should note the beginning and ending of the seizure and ensure adequate oxygenation after seizure activity has ceased. The nurse should not attempt to insert an oral airway or other object into the mouth during a seizure. The head can be gently turned to the side to prevent the aspiration of mucus and vomitus into the lungs during seizure activity (Leifer, 2005). The nurse obtains vital signs and monitors the fetus following the seizure.

NURSE ALERT: Seizures and Labor Progression
Labor may progress rapidly during seizure activity. Sometimes newborns are delivered suddenly during a seizure (Leifer, 2005). The nurse should be prepared for an imminent delivery in patients with preeclampsia and eclampsia.

PATIENT TEACHING

Patients suffering from pregnancy-related hypertension who are being treated on an outpatient basis are taught to monitor themselves and their unborn child for a decline in health status. Specifically, patients are taught to notify their healthcare provider if they experience headaches, visual disturbances, epigastric pain, or sudden weight gain. Patients may be taught to monitor their weight, blood pressure, and urine protein at home. They are instructed to notify the appropriate healthcare provider of elevated blood pressures or protein in the urine. They should also be instructed to perform daily fetal kick counts to monitor fetal well-being, as well as to increase protein intake because proteinuria decreases the amount of available protein.

The nurse encourages patients with pregnancy-related hypertension to rest in the left side-lying position as much as possible, whether at home or in the hospital. This position prevents unnecessary pressure on the vena cava, which decreases renal and placental blood flow and leads to increased blood pressure (Leifer, 2005). The patient should also be instructed to decrease environmental stimuli by lowering or turning off lights and by decreasing the volume on radios or televisions as well as decreasing the number of visitors. Nursing care should be performed in a manner that prevents unnecessary disturbances to the patient's environment while hospitalized. Stress and anxiety is a major concern in patients with pregnancy-related hypertension, as it can lead to increased blood pressure. Therefore, the nurse should discuss stress and anxiety management with patients.

GESTATIONAL DIABETES MELLITUS

Gestational diabetes mellitus occurs with the onset of pregnancy and is characterized by the inability of the pregnant patient to tolerate glucose. Patients who develop gestational diabetes may develop diabetes later in life. However, gestational diabetes often resolves after delivery. The cause of gestational diabetes is largely unknown. However, it is believed that, as the fetus grows, glucose demands increase for the pregnant patient. In addition, the "insulin-antagonistic" properties of placental hormones affect the patient by causing insulin resistance (Lowdermilk & Perry, 2006). As a result, the pregnant patient is unable to process glucose in the body and hyperglycemia occurs.

INCIDENCE AND RISK FACTORS

According to the American Diabetes Association (n.d.), gestational diabetes affects 7% of pregnancies in the United States. Box 4 presents several factors that place patients at risk for developing gestational diabetes mellitus.

MATERNAL AND FETAL COMPLICATIONS

A variety of maternal and fetal complications are associated with gestational diabetes mellitus. Patients have a significant chance of delivering via cesarean section due to the large size of infants born to patients with gestational diabetes. Patients also have an increased frequency of hypertension (Cunningham et al., 2005).

Infants born to patients with gestational diabetes mellitus are usually macrosomic (birthweight >4500 grams). This occurs due to fetal hyperinsulinemia as a result of maternal hyperglycemia, which stimulates excessive growth. These large infants may have difficulty maneuvering the birth canal and a cesarean section may be required. If vaginal delivery is attempted, the infant is at risk for shoulder dystocia or other birth injuries. After delivery, the newborn infant's blood glucose must be monitored regularly due to the sharp decrease in available glucose after the umbilical cord is cut. The newborn's pancreas continues to produce insulin after delivery despite the decrease in serum glucose. This adds to the potential instability of the infant's blood glucose. Infants are also at risk for hypocalcemia, hyperbilirubinemia, and respiratory distress syndrome as a result of gestational diabetes.

MEDICAL TREATMENT

Pregnant patients are routinely screened for gestational diabetes mellitus between 24 and 29 weeks' gestation. In order to diagnose gestational diabetes, patients drink 50 grams of oral glucose solution. After one hour, a blood sample is obtained and tested for glucose tolerance. A glucose level of 135 to 140 mg/dL is considered a positive screen and further investigation is warranted; A 2-hour or 3-hour glucose tolerance test is then typically performed (Cunningham et al., as cited in Lowdermilk & Perry, 2006).

Most patients with gestational diabetes are treated through diet. They are encouraged to consume a proper diet and obtain adequate exercise. According to the American Diabetes Association (as cited in Cunningham, et al., 2005), patients with gestational diabetes should consume a diet that provides 30-kcal/kg/d. Furthermore, they indicate that patients with a body mass index greater than 30 kg/m² may benefit from a 30% to 33% caloric restriction. Besides proper diet and exercise, some patients may require insulin or oral hypoglycemia agents to manage gestational diabetes mellitus.

NURSE ALERT: Resistance Exercise and Gestational Diabetes
Brankston and associates (as cited in Cunningham, et al., 2005), indicate that resistance exercise can help overweight patients with gestational diabetes avoid insulin therapy.

NURSING CARE

It is important for the nurse to monitor serum glucose levels as well as ketones and glucose in the urine throughout the pregnancy of patients with gestational diabetes mellitus. A referral to a dietician may also be necessary. The nurse may also conduct regular fetal surveillance including non-stress tests (NST) or biophysical profiles (BPP) starting from 32 to 36 weeks' gestation and until delivery.

During labor, the patient with gestational diabetes mellitus may need to be on intravenous insulin and glucose; blood glucose levels will be monitored regularly according to medical orders or institutional policies. Blood glucose may be monitored as often as every hour.

After delivery, the nurse is responsible for monitoring the infant's blood glucose levels, as glucose instability is common in newborns born to patients with gestational diabetes mellitus. If the newborn's blood glucose level is below acceptable national or institutional standards, usually <40 mg/dL, treatment with intravenous fluids, intravenous or oral glucose, or early feedings is necessary. Nurses must be aware of signs and symptoms of hypoglycemia in the newborn, including jitteriness, tremors, irritability, lethargy, seizures, tachypnea, temperature instability, and/or poor feeding and take appropriate action to assist in the treatment of hypoglycemia.

PATIENT TEACHING

The nurse working with patients who are diagnosed with gestational diabetes mellitus is often responsible for teaching the patient how to self-monitor and record glucose and ketones at home. In addition, the nurse can teach patients about proper diet and safe exercise during pregnancy. During prenatal visits, the nurse reviews the blood glucose and diet logs to make recommendations about monitoring, medication administration, and diet. Patients may also need to learn how to self-administer insulin. The nurse should make sure the patient can comfortably and appropriately check blood glucose levels and administer insulin by requesting a return demonstration.

It is imperative that the nurse teach patients with gestational diabetes the signs and symptoms of hypoglycemia. These signs and symptoms include shakiness, anxiety, headache, hunger, cold, clammy skin, and tingling around the mouth. The patient should be taught to closely monitor for hypoglycemia and to notify their healthcare provider immediately if signs and symptoms are noted. The patient can drink milk or juice or eat fruit to correct hypoglycemia (Leifer, 2007).

Since the potential for developing diabetes is significant in patients with gestational diabetes, it is important that patients understand the need for follow-up evaluation after delivery. Patients should continue to watch for signs and symptoms of hypoglycemia and notify their healthcare provider if seen.

AMNIOTIC MEMBRANE COMPLICATIONS

Premature rupture of membranes (PROM) refers to the rupture of membranes 1 hour or more before the onset of labor, whereas preterm premature rupture of membranes (PPROM) refers to the rupture of membranes prior to 37 weeks' gestation. Preterm premature rupture of membranes and PROM are often associated with preterm labor and birth.

INCIDENCE AND RISK FACTORS

Preterm premature rupture of membranes (PPROM) occurs in 3% of pregnancies and is the cause of one-third of preterm deliveries (Medina &3038; Hill, 2006). Premature rupture of membranes (PROM) occurs in 3%- to 18% of all pregnancies (Brown, 2000). Risk factors for preterm premature and premature rupture of membranes include infections such as STIs, a prematurely dilated cervix, hydramnios, multiple pregnancy, fetal malpresentation, maternal nutritional deficiencies, and stress. African American patients have a higher risk of developing early rupture of membranes (Brown, 2000).

NURSE ALERT: Respiratory Diseases and PROM
Getahun and colleagues (2007) hypothesized "… that acute and chronic respiratory diseases [were] associated with [an] increased risk of spontaneous PROM through bacteremia and increased levels of proinflammatory cytokines" (p. 670). After conducting a study of the delivery data for more than 41 million women, they found that "of the acute respiratory conditions, acute upper respiratory disease and viral and bacterial pneumonia were associated with PROM, but not acute bronchitis. Of the chronic respiratory conditions, asthma was associated with PROM, but chronic bronchitis was not" (p. 671).

MATERNAL AND FETAL IMPLICATIONS

Preterm premature rupture of membranes can cause a variety of problems, especially for the unborn fetus. Without the protective barrier of the amniotic membrane, the fetus is at a greater risk for the development of infection and preterm delivery. The fetus is also at risk for becoming septic after delivery. Additionally, without the cushioning of the amniotic fluid there is a higher probability of umbilical cord compression as well as cord prolapse.

Patients with PPROM or PROM have a risk of developing chorioamnionitis, which is an infection of the chorion and amnion of the placenta that can be life-threatening for the patient and fetus.

MEDICAL TREATMENT

The first step in determining the appropriate course of action for patients with PROM or PPROM involves distinguishing amniotic fluid from urine. Often patients complain of a "sudden gush" or a constant trickle of fluid from the vagina once the membranes have actually ruptured. The healthcare provider will then perform a sterile speculum examination to look for pooling of amniotic fluid near the cervix. Fluid is tested using nitrazine paper as well as via microscopic examination for the presence of "ferning." Ultrasound examination may be performed to determine the amount of available amniotic fluid after the rupture of membranes.

Medical treatment for patients with PPROM or PROM depends on a variety of factors. Gestational age, fetal lung maturity, available amniotic fluid, and etiology must be considered before deciding on treatment. Patients near term whose labor does not begin spontaneously following the rupture of membranes may be induced if the cervix is ripe. For preterm patients, healthcare providers and patients may desire to prolong the pregnancy to promote fetal lung maturity. Patients who are preterm may be prescribed corticosteroids to promote fetal lung maturity until deliver occurs or until there is a need to induce labor.

The cause of early rupture of membranes as well as the degree of amniotic fluid loss must also be considered when determining the appropriate course of action for patients with PPROM. Antibiotics are often administered to treat any infection and to prevent chorioamnionitis. If there is a significant loss of amniotic fluid rather than a slow leak, there is a stronger possibility of the need to induce labor. However, in preterm gestation, an amniotic sac with a slow leak of amniotic fluid may form a seal and the amniotic fluid may reestablish itself (McKinney et al., 2005).

NURSING CARE

As with medical treatment, nursing care greatly depends on whether the medical diagnosis is PPROM or PROM. However, nursing care typically involves assisting the healthcare provider to confirm the rupture of membranes, monitoring the patient for infection and for the presence of uterine contractions, and monitoring the status of the fetus. It is imperative that the nurse change patient underpads frequently and avoid unnecessary vaginal examinations to prevent infection.

Often, patients with PPROM who are considered stable are initially monitored on an inpatient basis and then discharged to home. Nursing care for these patients involves teaching about the signs and symptoms of preterm labor and when to call the healthcare provider. Nursing care for patients whose labor is induced involves administering induction agents and monitoring the status of the patient, fetus, and uterine contractions. As with all complications in pregnancy, the nurse should be available to answer questions and assist in relieving the patient's anxiety about her diagnosis.

NURSE ALERT: Cord Prolapse
When dealing with PPROM and PROM, the nurse should be prepared to deal with cord prolapse and compression, which can occur as the umbilical cord slips down in the pelvis and is a life-threatening situation for the fetus; therefore, the fetus must be monitored closely. In the event of cord prolapse and compression, the nurse should attempt to relieve pressure on the umbilical cord and instruct the patient to quickly move into the knee-chest or Trendelenburg position. Oxygen should be administered and the healthcare provider notified immediately.

PATIENT TEACHING

It is important for patients with PPROM to understand the signs and symptoms that suggest infection as well as preterm labor, which often follows PPROM. Patients should be instructed to call their healthcare provider or report to the hospital immediately if the following signs and symptoms are noted:

• Fever greater than 100.4°F (38°C)
• Foul-smelling vaginal discharge or other signs of infection
• Uterine contractions or cramping (including tightening of the abdomen)
• Decreased fetal movement

In addition, patients should be encouraged to avoid activities or objects that might induce labor or cause infection by exposing the cervix to bacteria. These include sexual activity, orgasm, nipple stimulation, and tampons and douches. Some patients may be placed on bed rest and should be encouraged to follow this directive to prevent preterm labor.

PRETERM LABOR AND BIRTH

Preterm labor refers to labor that occurs after 20 weeks', but before 37 weeks', gestation. Preterm birth, a consequence of preterm labor, refers to delivery prior to 37 weeks' gestation.

INCIDENCE AND RISK FACTORS

Preterm labor is responsible for preterm birth, which affects the ability of the newborn to adjust to extrauterine life. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2006), the preterm birth rate in the United States in 2005 was 12.7%, which was a slight increase from 2004 data. Preterm birth is a significant contributor to infant mortality rates. Box 5 presents a variety of risk factors that predispose patients to preterm labor and subsequent birth.

MATERNAL AND FETAL IMPLICATIONS

Preterm labor and birth present a unique challenge to patients and their fetuses. Although most of the implications apply to the fetus, patients may suffer from stress due to the diagnosis of preterm labor and birth as well as from the causative agent. Specifically, patients may be experiencing preterm labor and birth due to conditions such as sepsis or IPV. The fetus is at great risk for delivering early as a result of preterm labor. The effects of preterm labor and birth depend on the gestational age of the fetus at delivery. However, the immaturity of fetal lungs in the presence of preterm labor and birth is a significant concern for healthcare providers.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

Patients presenting with preterm labor and birth often complain of feeling pressure in the pelvic area, abdominal and/or uterine cramping or contractions, painful or painless contractions, feeling as though the fetus is "balling up," and/or constant back pain. Amniotic membranes may rupture prematurely, therefore a sudden gush or constant trickle of vaginal fluid may be noted.

MEDICAL TREATMENT

According to the American Academy of Pediatrics and the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (as cited in Cunningham et al., 2005), in order for a diagnosis of preterm labor to be given, the following should be noted: 4 contractions in 20 minutes or 8 contractions in 60 minutes with a progressive change in the cervix, cervical dilation greater than 1 cm and cervical effacement of 80% or greater.

Medical treatment for preterm labor and birth is dependent upon the gestational age of the fetus. Generally, healthcare providers seek to avoid delivery of patients prior to 34 weeks' gestation to allow further maturation of the fetal lungs (Cunningham et al., 2005). Often healthcare providers prescribe antibiotics to treat infection, glucocorticoids to increase fetal lung maturity, intravenous therapy to maintain hydration, and tocolytics to control uterine contractions in patients with preterm labor.

NURSING CARE

Nursing care for patients experiencing preterm labor include administering prescribed medications such as antibiotics, glucocorticoids, intravenous fluids, and tocolytics, and preparing the patient for possible delivery. While hospitalized, patients should be monitored for signs and symptoms of infection, which can lead to preterm labor. Fetal tachycardia indicates possible infection and should be evaluated immediately. Vital signs, contractions, and fetal status should be assessed as ordered or according to institutional policy. As patients are often permitted to remain at home once stable, nursing care for these patients include teaching patients preventive measures that will help them avoid early delivery.

When patients are faced with the possibility of delivering a preterm infant, the situation may quickly become overwhelming to them. Although preterm labor and birth can occur rapidly, it is imperative that nurses address the emotional issues of the patient. Generally, this will involve answering patient questions about the status of the fetus and preparing the patient for the care required to prevent delivery or the necessary preparation for preterm delivery.

PATIENT TEACHING

The major goal of teaching patients with preterm labor is to help them become aware of factors that may cause premature labor and delivery. Box 6 presents important teaching for patients with preterm labor.

CONCLUSION

Pregnancy, labor, and birth are a wondrous time in the lives of countless women and their families. However, this time can be clouded by a variety of complications that affect the patient and fetus. Fortunately, with early identification and treatment of complications and their side effects, patients and their children have a greater chance of survival and the potential to thrive after delivery.

Nurses play a special role in ensuring the safety of the patient and her unborn child during all phases of pregnancy and delivery. They must be knowledgeable about complications that can occur during pregnancy and ready to act on behalf of the patient and her child. This is the responsibility and goal of the perinatal nurse. Most hospitals and birthing centers provide guidelines for nurses providing care to patients experiencing complications during their pregnancies and nurses should always follow the recommendations of their facilities.

Posted August 8, 2008

Expires August 1, 2010

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